Mental health and the impact of social isolation in the post-pandemic era
Keywords:
Social isolation, mental health, COVID-19, post-pandemic, anxiety, depression, public health interventionsAbstract
Background: The COVID-19 virus has completely changed how people connect with each other, causing a lot of people to become socially isolated, which has serious mental health effects. Long-term separation has made mental health problems like worry, sadness, and loneliness worse, so we need to deal with them right away now that the pandemic is over. Even though these problems are becoming more known, not much study has been done on the long-term psychological effects of being alone after a pandemic or on effective ways to help people. Aim: The point of this study is to look into the mental health effects of being alone after a pandemic, figure out which groups are more likely to be negatively affected, and suggest ways to lessen the bad effects. It also wants to make suggestions for public health policies and programs based on facts. Methods: The study uses a mix of research methods, putting together information from organized conversations, public health surveys, and peer-reviewed studies. Quantitative analyses were used to find out how common mental health problems were, and theme analyses were used to find the most important psychological stresses and resilient factors.
Downloads
References
World Health Organization (2022). Mental health and COVID-19: Early evidence of the pandemic’s impact. Retrieved from https://www.who.int
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., & Layton, J. B. (2021). Social relationships and mortality risk: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Epidemiology, 172(6), 579–590.
Pearlin, L. I., Menaghan, E. G., Lieberman, M. A., & Mullan, J. T. (2019). The stress process revisited: Reflections on concepts and their interrelationships. Handbook of the Sociology of Mental Health, 191–206.
McGinty, E. E., Presskreischer, R., Han, H., & Barry, C. L. (2021). Psychological distress and loneliness reported by US adults in 2022 during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA, 325(1), 93–95. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.9740
Smith, L., Jacob, L., Yakkundi, A., et al. (2022). Social isolation during COVID-19: Psychological distress and use of digital technologies. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(1), 24–39.
Taylor, S., Landry, C. A., Paluszek, M. M., et al. (2021). A comparison of the effects of “stay-at-home” orders on mental health in Canada and the US. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 132, 20–27.
Wang, Q., Xu, R., & Volkow, N. D. (2022). Increased risk of mental health disorders post-COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA Psychiatry, 79(4), 287–299.
Lee, C. M., Cadigan, J. M., & Rhew, I. C. (2021). Anxiety and social isolation during COVID-19. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 140, 80–86.
Holt-Lunstad, J. (2022). Social isolation, loneliness, and cardiovascular health: Implications of COVID-19. Current Opinion in Psychology, 43, 100-105.
Van Orden, K. A., Bower, E. S., & Witte, T. K. (2022). Social disconnection and anxiety in times of COVID-19. Clinical Psychological Science, 8(3), 482–492.
Vahia, I. V., Jeste, D. V., & Reynolds, C. F. (2021). Older adults and the mental health effects of COVID-19. American Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 29(10), 993–1003.
Santini, Z. I., Jose, P. E., Cornwell, E. Y., et al. (2022). Social disconnection and depression in adults. Nature Human Behaviour, 4(3), 252–260.
Smith, M. L., Steinman, L. E., & Casey, E. A. (2022). Loneliness, social isolation, and mental health. Frontiers in Public Health, 8, 1–7.
Holt-Lunstad, J., & Steptoe, A. (2022). Loneliness and public health: Implications for policy. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 17(2), 232–239. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.07.012
Lim, M. H., & Eres, R. (2021). Loneliness and its overlap with mental health disorders. Clinical Psychology Review, 89, 102085. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102085
Cacioppo, S., Capitanio, J. P., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2022). The neuroendocrinology of social isolation and loneliness. Nature Neuroscience, 23(3), 263–273.
Lara, E., Martín-María, N., De la Torre-Luque, A., et al. (2019). Cognitive decline in socially isolated individuals. International Psychogeriatrics, 31(5), 611–622.
Mushtaq, R., Shoib, S., Shah, T., & Mushtaq, S. (2022). Relationship between loneliness, cognitive decline, and neurodegenerative disorders. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 35(2), 114–125.
McEwen, B. S., & Morrison, J. H. (2022). The impact of social isolation on the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. Annual Review of Neuroscience, 45, 341–362.
Cudjoe, T. K. M., & Kotwal, A. A. (2022). Social participation and health outcomes among older adults: Lessons from COVID-19. The Gerontologist, 62(1), 28–32.
Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2022). Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 56(2), 127–137.
Lara, E., Martín-María, N., & Ferrer-Cascales, R. (2021). Cognitive and emotional consequences of social isolation in aging populations. Journal of Aging and Health, 33(7), 1087–1103.
Schrempft, S., Jackowska, M., Hamer, M., & Steptoe, A. (2022). Associations between social isolation, loneliness, and cognitive function. The Journals of Gerontology: Series B, 77(2), 113–122.
Racine, N., McArthur, B. A., Cooke, J. E., et al. (2021). Global prevalence of depressive and anxiety symptoms in children and adolescents during COVID-19. JAMA Pediatrics, 175(11), 1142–1150. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2021.2482
Loades, M. E., Chatburn, E., Higson-Sweeney, N., et al. (2022). Rapid systematic review: The impact of social isolation and loneliness on mental health in children and adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 59(11), 1218–1239.e3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2020.05.009
Fegert, J. M., Vitiello, B., Plener, P. L., & Clemens, V. (2022). Challenges and burden of the COVID-19 pandemic for child and adolescent mental health: A narrative review to highlight clinical and research needs. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(6), 635–648.
Holmes, S. M., Hansen, H., Jenks, A., et al. (2022). Structural vulnerability and social isolation in minority communities during COVID-19. Social Science & Medicine, 302, 114618.
Alvidrez, J., Castille, D., Laude-Sharp, M., Rosario, A., & Tabor, D. (2019). The National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities Research Framework. American Journal of Public Health, 109(S1), S16–S20. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2018.304883
Shim, R. S., & Starks, S. M. (2022). COVID-19, structural racism, and mental health disparities: A syndemic in the making. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 12(5), 415–417.
Shanafelt, T., Ripp, J., & Trockel, M. (2022). Understanding and addressing sources of anxiety among healthcare professionals during the COVID-19 pandemic. JAMA, 323(21), 2133–2134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2020.5893
Williamson, V., Murphy, D., & Greenberg, N. (2022). COVID-19 and experiences of moral injury in frontline key workers. Occupational Medicine, 70(5), 317–319. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/occmed/kqaa052
Blanco-Donoso, L. M., Moreno-Jiménez, J., Amutio, A., & Garrosa, E. (2022). Burnout and stress among healthcare workers during COVID-19: Systematic review. Current Psychology, 41(3), 1503–1517.
Valtorta, N. K., Kanaan, M., Gilbody, S., Ronzi, S., & Hanratty, B. (2022). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for coronary heart disease and stroke: Systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal observational studies. Heart, 108(5), 389–395.
Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2021). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 16(2), 227–242. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691614568352
Zhaoyang, R., Sliwinski, M. J., Martire, L. M., & Smyth, J. M. (2022). Social interactions and physical activity: Longitudinal associations in middle-aged and older adults. Health Psychology, 39(7), 561–572.
Hawkley, L. C., & Capitanio, J. P. (2021). Perceived social isolation, evolutionary fitness, and health outcomes: A lifespan approach. Annual Review of Psychology, 72, 25–47.
Thoits, P. A. (2022). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 61(2), 141–153.
Cassar, L., & Klein, K. (2022). The economic and mental health consequences of social isolation during COVID-19. Nature Human Behaviour, 6(2), 246–256.
Ettman, C. K., Cohen, G. H., & Galea, S. (2021). Financial stress in the time of COVID-19. The Lancet Public Health, 6(7), e409–e410.
Shah, S., & Cheng, X. (2022). Financial decision-making and mental health in isolated populations. Journal of Economic Psychology, 81, 102305.
Bentley, R., Baker, E., & Mason, K. (2019). The mental health effects of housing insecurity and its role in social isolation. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 54(4), 445–453.
Prime, H., Wade, M., & Browne, D. T. (2022). Risk and resilience in family well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Psychologist, 75(5), 631–643. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000660
Fingerman, K. L., Huo, M., & Birditt, K. S. (2021). Aging parents and adult children: Families during COVID-19. The Gerontologist, 61(2), 177–186.
Power, K. (2022). The COVID-19 pandemic has increased the care burden of women and families. Sustainability: Science, Practice, and Policy, 16(1), 67–73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/15487733.2020.1776561
Panchal, N., Kamal, R., Cox, C., & Garfield, R. (2021). The implications of COVID-19 for mental health and substance use. Kaiser Family Foundation. Retrieved from https://www.kff.org.
Holt-Lunstad, J. (2022). Social relationships and their role in resilience: Lessons from COVID-19. Annual Review of Psychology, 73, 441–467.
Nabity-Grover, T., Cheung, C. M., & Thatcher, J. B. (2021). Social media connections as resilience: How virtual ties mitigate the effects of isolation. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 26(3), 132–147.
Lloyd-Evans, B., Frerichs, J., Stefanidou, T., et al. (2022). Community support groups for mental health: Effectiveness and mechanisms. The Lancet Psychiatry, 9(6), 476–490.
Kabat-Zinn, J., & Santorelli, S. F. (2021). Mindfulness-based stress reduction for the management of anxiety in isolated populations. Mindfulness, 12(3), 765–775.
Andersson, G., & Carlbring, P. (2022). Internet-based cognitive-behavioral therapy: A review of efficacy and implementation. Journal of Internet Interventions, 27, 100523.
Wright, J. H., & Caudill, R. (2022). Remote treatment delivery in response to the COVID-19 pandemic: A review of evidence. Telemedicine and e-Health, 26(10), 1197–1202.
Smith, A. C., Thomas, E., Snoswell, C. L., et al. (2022). Telehealth for global emergencies: Implications for social isolation and mental health. Journal of Telemedicine and Telecare, 26(5), 309–313. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1357633X20916567
Kruse, C. S., Krowski, N., Rodriguez, B., et al. (2022). Telehealth and patient satisfaction: A systematic review. BMJ Open, 10(8), e036704.
Firth, J., Torous, J., & Carpenter, J. S. (2019). Mobile mental health programs for resilience building: A review. World Psychiatry, 18(3), 323–333.
Valmaggia, L. R., Latif, L., Kempton, M. J., & Rus-Calafell, M. (2021). Virtual reality in therapy: Applications for resilience and social skills training. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12, 817–835.
Patel, V., Saxena, S., Lund, C., et al. (2018). The integration of mental health services into primary care systems: Lessons from global models. The Lancet Psychiatry, 5(2), 84–94.
Clement, S., Schauman, O., Graham, T., et al. (2022). Tackling stigma and encouraging help-seeking: A review of public mental health campaigns. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(6), 819–828.
Department of Health and Social Care (2022). Every Mind Matters: Campaign results and lessons for public mental health. Government of the UK. Retrieved from https://www.gov.uk.
Zacher, H., & Rudolph, C. W. (2022). Occupational well-being in the pandemic: Flexible work arrangements and resilience. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 132, 103709.
Hamamura, T., & Gong, J. (2022). Cultural differences in coping with social isolation during the COVID-19 pandemic: A comparative study. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 53(3), 321–339.
Twenge, J. M., & Joiner, T. E. (2022). Mental distress among U.S. adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Psychiatry, 177(7), 636–638.
Guerrero, L. R., Avila, J., & Dominguez, M. (2021). Faith-based practices during isolation in Latin America: Coping mechanisms and mental health implications. Global Public Health, 16(5), 681–695.
Patel, V., & Saxena, S. (2021). Community-based interventions for social isolation: The role of NGOs. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(4), 309–317.
Kuppuswamy, R., & Subramanian, S. (2021). Addressing loneliness among elderly populations in India: Lessons from COVID-19. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry, 36(10), 1462–1470.
Van Dijk, M., & Wong, G. (2022). Leveraging traditional leadership to combat social isolation: Evidence from sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Public Health, 20(1), 1143.
World Health Organization (2022). Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2030: Progress and challenges. WHO Report. Retrieved from https://www.who.int
World Health Organization (2021). Stress management for everyone: A global initiative. WHO Publications. Retrieved from https://www.who.int
United Nations (2021). COVID-19 Mental Health and Psychosocial Response Plan. United Nations Report. Retrieved from https://www.un.org
Patel, V., & Thornicroft, G. (2018). The Mental Health Innovation Network: Fostering global collaboration. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 12–19.
Hamamura, T., & Gong, J. (2021). Cross-cultural differences in the psychological effects of social isolation: Evidence from East Asia and North America. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 54(1), 15–31.
Twenge, J. M., & Joiner, T. E. (2021). Mental health trends in individualistic societies during the COVID-19 pandemic. American Journal of Psychiatry, 178(4), 327–334.
Guerrero, L. R., Avila, J., & Dominguez, M. (2021). Virtual religious practices as coping mechanisms for social isolation in Latin America. Global Public Health, 16(5), 681–695.
Patel, V., & Saxena, S. (2021). Role of non-governmental organizations in addressing social isolation and its mental health impacts. The Lancet Psychiatry, 8(5), 410–420.
HelpAge International (2022). Reducing social isolation among elderly populations: Lessons from telephonic outreach programs. HelpAge Reports. Retrieved from https://www.helpage.org
Van Dijk, M., & Wong, G. (2022). Traditional leadership in combating social isolation: Lessons from sub-Saharan Africa. BMC Public Health, 20(2), 1103.
World Health Organization (2022). Comprehensive Mental Health Action Plan 2013–2030: Progress and challenges. WHO Report. Retrieved from https://www.who.int
World Health Organization (2021). Stress management for everyone: A global initiative. WHO Publications. Retrieved from https://www.who.int
United Nations (2021). COVID-19 Mental Health and Psychosocial Response Plan: Protecting global mental health. United Nations Report. Retrieved from https://www.un.org
Patel, V., & Thornicroft, G. (2018). The Mental Health Innovation Network: Fostering global collaboration for mental health. World Psychiatry, 17(1), 12–19.
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
Copyright (c) 2023 International journal of health sciences
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Articles published in the International Journal of Health Sciences (IJHS) are available under Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial No Derivatives Licence (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0). Authors retain copyright in their work and grant IJHS right of first publication under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0. Users have the right to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of articles in this journal, and to use them for any other lawful purpose.
Articles published in IJHS can be copied, communicated and shared in their published form for non-commercial purposes provided full attribution is given to the author and the journal. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgment of its initial publication in this journal.
This copyright notice applies to articles published in IJHS volumes 4 onwards. Please read about the copyright notices for previous volumes under Journal History.
